RS-232 Cables, Wiring and Pinouts

http://www.zytrax.com/tech/layer_1/cables/tech_rs232.htm

Brief tutorial and pinouts for RS-232, T1/E1 and V.35.

Contents

DTE (PC) and DCE (Modem)
DB9 and DB25 Male and Female Pin Numbering
RS232 on DB25 Pinout (RS-232C)
RS232 on DB9 Pinout (EIA/TIA - 574)
RS232 on RJ45 (RS-232D EIA/TIA-561)
RS232 DB25 NULL Modem Pinout
RS232 DB9 NULL Modem Pinout
RS232 DB9 and DB25 Loopback Pinout
RS232 DB9 NULL Modem Pinout using Cat5(e)
RS232 DB9 to DB25 Pinout
RS232 DB9 to DB25 NULL Modem Pinout
EIA/TIA RS-530-A (DB25 using RS-422, 423 and 485)
V.35 on a DB25
DBx - Designations for D type sub-miniature connectors
T1/E1 Pinout (RJ-48C)

RS-232 standards(EIA-232) are defined by EIA/TIA (Electronic Industries Alliance /Telecommunications Industry Association). RS-232 defines both the physical and electrical characteristics of the interface. RS-232 is practically identical to ITU V.24 (signal description and names) and V.28 (electrical). RS232 is an Active LOW voltage driven interface and operates at +12V to -12V where:

Signal = 0 (LOW) > +3.0V

Signal = 1 (HIGH) < -3.0V

Notes:

1. Signal voltages in the range >-3.0V to +3.0V is regarded as the 'dead area' and allows for absorption of noise. For more on the use of signals and other heavy stuff.

2. The power level on RS232 pins is defined by TIA in terms of short circuit protection to be 100mA. Most RS232 drivers will provide lower short circuit protection (especially for laptops). A max of 50mA PER PIN may be available but the data sheet for the specific interface/chip should be consulted before commiting to externally powered designs.

3. We received an email recently pointing out some issues with NULL modem cables. The pinouts shown below will gnerally work. However there are many permutations of signal sets that can be used by either end of a connection and they may not be SYMMETRIC. One end may expect something (a signal) that the other end cannot generate. This typically happens with CTS/RTS (and perhaps DCD) and DTR/DSR. If you suspect this is the case then unfortunately you need to UNDERSTAND the interface and may have to SPOOF certain signals. Our signal primer page may help you. Finally if you are having serious problems, splash out on a light box or some other device that will show you which signals are being activated.

4. Serial communications equipment may either a DTE (Data Terminal Equipment - a terminal or PC) or a DCE (Data communications Equipment - for example, a modem) and have a direction depending on the type. All the diagrams below define the interface from the DTE perspective.

5. The terms Data Carrier Detect (DCD) and Received Line Signal Detect (RLSD) are one and the same. We use DCD throughout 'cos we think it's more common.

6. Like most folks we use the term DB9 which is widely - but erroneously - used to describe a 9-pin serial connector. We got an email pointing out the error of our ways. So, if you want to amaze your friends over the dinner table you can read more here and use the technically correct terms in the future. While we get away with it most of the time (with common or garden PCs), sometimes it is essential to know EXACTLY what connector type you are talking about.

7. RS-232-E is normally defined to be used with a DB25 connector, but does have a 26 pin (a much smaller connector) alternate . We suggest that if you come across one of these that you do the decent thing - use an expletive. Alternatively, with your luck, you could consider buying a lottery ticket.

8. We have received a number of emails recently asking how to wire DB9's using cat5(e) cable. We guess there is a lot of LAN cable lying around these days so folks naturally want to use it. We have added a null modem only section to cover this wiring. There is absolutely no standard to cover this form of wiring. This section is simply offered as one of many possible ways to do it.

9. We got an email asking about TTY 20ma current loop interfaces. This was the old method used to connect teletype devices and uses current (normally 20ma but sometimes 60ma) to indicate mark and space. A TTY system CANNOT be connected to RS-232 (which is a voltage driven interface) and has no standard. You will need to get the manufacturer's specifications and start reading!

DTE (PC) and DCE (Modem)

In serial communications the terminal end (PC) is called the Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and the modem is called the Data Communications Equipment (DCE) as shown in the diagram below.

Serial Communications with a modem

RS-232 signals have a direction (in or out) depending on whether they are with respect to a DTE or a DCE. In all the pinout diagrams below the signal direction is with respect to the DTE (PC).

NULL Modem Connections

When PCs are connected back-to-back each is acting as a DTE (there is no DCE in this case) and consequently certain signals have to be looped in the connection to satisfy any input signal requirement. This is called a NULL (no) modem configuration. For example, when the DTE raises Request to Send (RTS) it expects Clear to Send (CTS) from the DCE. Since there is no DCE to raise CTS, the outgoing RTS signal is looped in the NULL modem cable to the incoming CTS satisfy the DTE's need for this signal. This is shown in the diagram below.

Serial Communications with a NULL modem configuration

DB9 and DB25 Male and Female Pin Numbering

These diagrams show the male (grey background) and female (black background) pin numbering for DB9 and DB25 sub-miniature connectors. Generally Pin 1 is marked on the front of the connector right next to the pin - though you may need a magnifying glass to read it. Some manufacturers mark each pin number on the plastic housing at the rear of the connector. The male connector has the pins sticking out!

DB25 Male and Female

DB25: View looking into male connector

DB25: View looking into female connector

DB9 Male and Female

DB9: View looking into male connector

DB9: View looking into female connector

RS232 on DB25 (RS-232C)

The use of each pin including methods for spoofing signals is described in our Signal/pin primer. The RS-232 DB25 connector is capable of supporting two separate connections - each with its own optional clock when used in Synchronous mode or Bit-Synchronous mode. If you are using the interface purely for Asynchronous communications then you only need those marked with (ASYNC) below or you can use even fewer (if you understand what is happening). The column marked Dir shows the signal direction with respect to the DTE.

Note: This is NOT the same as the DB25 Parallel port on a PC.

Pin No.	Name	Dir	Notes/Description
1	-	-	Protective/shielded ground
2	TD	OUT	Transmit Data (a.k.a TxD, Tx) (ASYNC)
3	RD	IN	Receive Data (a.k.a RxD, Rx) (ASYNC)
4	RTS	OUT	Request To Send (ASYNC)
5	CTS	IN	Clear To Send (ASYNC)
6	DSR	IN	Data Set Ready (ASYNC)
7	SGND	-	Signal Ground
8	CD	IN	Carrier Detect (a.k.a DCD).
9	-	-	Reserved for data set testing.
10	-	-	Reserved for data set testing.
11	-	-	Unassigned
12	SDCD	IN	Secondary Carrier Detect. Only needed if second channel being used.
13	SCTS	IN	Secondary Clear to send. Only needed if second channel being used.
14	STD	OUT	Secondary Transmit Data. Only needed if second channel being used.
15	DB	OUT	Transmit Clock (a.k.a TCLK, TxCLK). Synchronous use only.
16	SRD	IN	Secondary Receive Data. Only needed if second channel being used.
17	DD	IN	Receive Clock (a.k.a. RCLK). Synchronous use only.
18	LL	-	Local Loopback
19	SRTS	OUT	Secondary Request to Send. Only needed if second channel being used.
20	DTR	OUT	Data Terminal Ready. (ASYNC)
21	RL/SQ	-	Signal Quality Detector/Remote loopback
22	RI	IN	Ring Indicator. DCE (Modem) raises when incoming call detected used for auto answer applications.
23	CH/CI	OUT	Signal Rate selector.
24	DA	-	Auxiliary Clock (a.k.a. ACLK). Secondary Channel only.
25	-	-	Unassigned

NOTE: Leave all pins not specified above unconnected.

view - looking into male connector

(male and female connector diagrams)

RS232 on DB9 (EIA/TIA 574)

Signal functions are described in detail in our Signal/pin primer. The column marked Dir shows the signal direction with respect to the DTE.

Pin No.	Name	Dir	Notes/Description
1	DCD	IN	Data Carrier Detect. Raised by DCE when modem synchronized.
2	RD	IN	Receive Data (a.k.a RxD, Rx). Arriving data from DCE.
3	TD	OUT	Transmit Data (a.k.a TxD, Tx). Sending data from DTE.
4	DTR	OUT	Data Terminal Ready. Raised by DTE when powered on. In auto-answer mode raised only when RI arrives from DCE.
5	SGND	-	Ground
6	DSR	IN	Data Set Ready. Raised by DCE to indicate ready.
7	RTS	OUT	Request To Send. Raised by DTE when it wishes to send. Expects CTS from DCE.
8	CTS	IN	Clear To Send. Raised by DCE in response to RTS from DTE.
9	RI	IN	Ring Indicator. Set when incoming ring detected - used for auto-answer application. DTE raised DTR to answer.

DB9 (EIA/TIA 574): View - looking into male connector

(male and female connector diagrams)

RS232 on RJ45 (RS-232D)

More properly EIA/TIA - 561. Use when connecting to or from a serial port with a 8 position Modular Jack (RJ45). If you are cross-connecting from a DB9 or a DB25 use the signal names to cross connect the appropriate connections.

Signal/pin primer

Pin No.	Name	Notes/Description
1	DSR/RI	Data set Ready/ring indicator
2	DCD	Data Carrier Detect
3	DTR	Data Terminal Ready
4	SGND	Signal Ground
5	RD	Receive Data
6	TD	Transmit Data
7	CTS	Clear to Send
8	RTS	Request to Send

Note: Pin 1 is a multi-function pin sharing with DSR (Data Set Ready) and RI (Ring Indicator). This means it is impossible to differentiate between a incoming ring signal and when the modem has finally connected and synched up. With local (null modem connections) or if the modem is run in auto-answer mode this is not normally a problem. If used with a modem and the DTE (the computer end) wants to control the connection the problem is more real. DSR would normally indicate the 'connected and synched-up' state following DTR from the DTE. DCD will indicate that a carrier has been received but does not indicate synchronization of both ends. In most cases however CTS (Clear To Send) in response to RTS (Request To Send) will not normally be returned until an end-to-end connection is available.

RJ45 Male Connector Pin Numbering

RS232 DB25 NULL Modem Pinout

Use when connecting two systems (e.g. PCs) via their DB25 interfaces without a modem (i.e. back-to-back). See the full signal names in the DB25 sections.

If this pinout does not work for you then you could try our Signal/pin primer because you may need to SPOOF connections.

Note: This DB25 is NOT the same as the DB25 Parallel port on a PC which is defined here.

DB25	Signal	DB25	Signal
3	RD	2	TD
2	TD	3	RD
20	DTR	6,8	DSR, DCD
6,8	DSR, DCD	20	DTR
4	RTS	5	CTS
5	CTS	4	RTS
7	SGND	7	SGND
22	RI	22	RI

DB25: View - looking into male connector

(male and female connector diagrams)

NOTE:

1. Leave all pins not specified above unconnected.

2. We have received email suggesting that the above pinout looks like DTR from one side is driving into DSR/DCD on the other side - not normally a healthy situation. The emails miss the point that since this is a NULL modem connection both ends are DTEs. The two peer DTE's treat DSR/DCD signals as RX (INPUT) only. The INPUT DSR/DCD on one side is created by cross connecting the OUTPUT DTR signal for the other peer.

RS232 DB9 NULL Modem Pinout

Use when connecting two systems, for example two PCs, via their DB9 interfaces without a modem. Typically called a back-to-back or NULL modem connection. See the full signal names in the DB9 section.

If this pinout does not work for you then you could try our Signal/pin primer because you may need to SPOOF connections.

DB9	Signal	DB9	Signal
2	RD	3	TD
3	TD	2	RD
4	DTR	6,1	DSR, DCD
6,1	DSR, DCD	4	DTR
7	RTS	8	CTS
8	CTS	7	RTS
5	SGND	5	SGND
9	RI	9	RI

DB9 TIA/EIA 574: View - looking into male connector

(male and female connector diagrams)

NOTE:

1. We have received email suggesting that the above pinout looks like DTR from one side is driving into DSR/DCD on the other side - not normally a healthy situation. The emails miss the point that since this is a NULL modem connection both ends are DTEs. The two peer DTE's treat DSR/DCD signals as RX (INPUT) only. The INPUT DSR/DCD on one side is created by cross connecting the OUTPUT DTR signal for the other peer.

RS232 DB9 and DB25 Loopback Pinout

Loopback is a method of testing the RS232 connector and interface circuitry to ensure it is functioning correctly, that is, in layman's jargon - it ain't broke! Data is sent and received on the same RS232 connector - which may be either DB9 or DB25. The test normally consists of using some program to transmit data. The program then checks to ensure exactly the same data was received. If this test is performed using two systems and it fails the question is - which end has the problem? Loopback testing gives you a binary result - it works, in which case thes end under test is good, or it does not, in which case the end under test is broken. Pinouts are shown for both DB9 and DB25. The loopback is normally constructed in the DB shell or using a diagnostic light-box.

DB9 Loopback

DB9	Signal	Loopback to	Signal
2	RD	3	TD
3	TD	2	RD
4	DTR	6,1,9	DSR, DCD, RI
7	RTS	8	CTS
5	SGND	5	SGND

(DB9 male and female connector diagrams)

NOTE:

1. We show 4 (DTR) being looped to 6 (DSR), 1 (DCD) and 9 (RI). RI (9) is included because we understand that certain test programs use this to ensure a more complete test of the interface signal set.

DB25 Loopack

DB25	Signal	Loopback to	Signal
3	RD	2	TD
2	TD	3	RD
4	RTS	5	CTS
5	CTS	4	RTS
7	SGND	7	SGND
15	DB	17	DD
20	DTR	6,8,22	DSR, DCD, RI
23	CH/CI	23	CH/CI

(male and female connector diagrams)

NOTE:

1. For the sake of simplicity this loopback will only work for the primary channel. Full DB25 interfaces allow a secondary channel. If a complete interface loopback is required you will need to add pins 12, 13, 14, 16, 19, 24.

2. By looping the primary channel clocks (15 and 17) both synchronous and asynchronous capabilities can be tested. If only asynchronous tests are being performed omit this, and the pin 23 loopback

3. We show 20 (DTR) being looped to 6 (DSR), 8 (DCD) and 22 (RI). RI (22) is included because we understand that certain test programs use this to ensure a more complete test of the interface signal set.

RS232 DB9 NULL Modem Pinout on CAT5

This is in response to a number of recent emails asking how to wire both ends of a DB9 connection using cat5(e) cable. This must not be confused with DB9 to RJ45 (RS232D). We have shown a null modem (back-to-back PCs) only configuration. And if you want to use cat5(e) with a real modem (a DB25 connector)? Our advice - don't.

Warning:. There is, as far as we know, no standard to cover the use of cat5(e) (8 conductor) wiring when used with two DB9 connectors. Any such wiring scheme is therefore non-standard - that includes the wiring scheme below. Specifically this means that both ends of the cable must be wired in the same way and that no assumptions can be made about how the other end is wired. You will have to manually inspect both ends of the connection. Damage can result from mis-matched wiring.

A DB9 clearly has 9 connections and a cat5(e) cable has 8 conductors. RS232D has chosen to use Pin 1 as a multi-function pin (DSR/RI) to provide maximum flexibility with modems - in particular it allows for DCD which is a meaningful signal from a modem but not we suggest from a peer PC. We have chosen to use a minor variation on the normal DB9 Null modem pinout above - specifically we have allowed for RI which could be used from a peer PC to commence a transmission sequence. The colors used are unimportant but the suggested configuration is one way to provide the shortest use of the adjacent (twisted) pairs.

If this pinout does not work for you then you could try our Signal/pin primer because you may need to SPOOF connections.

PC1 Peer			PC2 Peer
DB9	Signal	cat5(e) Color	DB9	Signal	cat5(e) Color
2	RD	Brown	3	TD	Blue
3	TD	Blue	2	RD	Brown
4	DTR	Green	6,1	DSR, DCD	Brown-white
6,1	DSR, DCD	Brown-white	4	DTR	Green
7	RTS	Blue-white	8	CTS	Green-white
8	CTS	Green-white	7	RTS	Blue-white
5	SGND	Orange	5	SGND	Orange
9	RI	Orange-white	9	RI	Orange-white

DB9: View - looking into male connector

(male and female connector diagrams)

NOTE:

1. We have received email suggesting that the above pinout looks like DTR from one side is driving into DSR/DCD on the other side - not normally a healthy situation. The emails miss the point that since this is a NULL modem connection both ends are DTEs. The two peer DTE's treat DSR/DCD signals as RX (INPUT) only. The INPUT DSR/DCD on one side is created by cross connecting the OUTPUT DTR signal for the other peer.

RS232 DB9 to DB25 Pinout

Use when connecting a DB9 (e.g. a PC) to a DB25 (e.g. a modem) interface. See the full signal names in the DB9 and DB25 section.

Signal/pin primer

DB9	Signal	DB25
1	DCD	8
2	RD	3
3	TD	2
4	DTR	20
5	SGND	7
6	DSR	6
7	RTS	4
8	CTS	5
9	RI	22

View - looking into male connector

(male and female connector diagrams)

View - looking into male connector

(male and female connector diagrams)

NOTE: Leave all pins not specified above unconnected.

RS232 DB9 to DB25 NULL Modem Pinout

Use when connecting two systems (e.g. PCs) when one has a DB9 interface and the other a DB25 interface without a modem. Typically called a back-to-back or NULL modem connection. See the full signal names in the DB9 and DB25 sections.

Signal/pin primer

DB9	Signal	DB25	Signal
2	RD	2	TD
3	TD	3	RD
4	DTR	6,8	DSR, DCD
6,1	DSR, DCD	20	DTR
7	RTS	5	CTS
8	CTS	4	RTS
5	SGND	7	SGND
9	RI	22	RI

DB9: View - looking into male connector

(male and female connector diagrams)

View - looking into male connector

(male and female connector diagrams)

NOTE: Leave all pins not specified above unconnected.

EIA/TIA RS-530-A (DB25)

RS 530-A defines the pinout when using either balanced RS-422 (and RS-485) or unbalanced RS-423 electrical interfaces using a DB25 connector. By using a DB25 connector RS-530 is now frequently used to replace many older standards which defined hideously huge connectors such V.35. (used a whopping 35 pin connector) and RS-449 (used a pretty serious 37 pin connector).

V.35 on DB25 (RS-530-A)

The original V.35 specification defined use of balanced signals over a huge 35 pin connector. V.35 has been obsolete for years (replaced with V.10 and V.11) though the term is still frequently used. Most modern systems that call themselves V.35 use a DB25 connector which has more modest dimensions. The A (+) and B (-) below refer to each signal pair used in balanced serial interfaces. When used with RS-423 (unbalanced) the B (-) are tied to a common ground. Signals marked U under Bal/Ubal are not balanced since they typically change very infrequently (for example once per session) and therefore do not affect TX/RX performance sensitivity - hence speed. BEWARE: RS-530 (without the A suffix) is an earlier standard and is wired differently. This is the 530-A pinout spec.

Signal/pin primer

Pin No.	Name	Bal/Ubal	Notes/Description
1	Shield		Cable Shield, connected at DTE only.
2	BA		Transmit Data (A+) (a.k.a TxD)
3	BB		Received Data (A+) (a.k.a. RxD)
4	CA/CJ		RTS (A+) Request To Send
5	CB		CTS (A+) Clear To Send
6	CC	U	Data Communications Equipment Ready (modem/CSU) (a.k.a DSR)
7	AB		Signal Ground
8	CF		Data Carrier Detect (A+) (a.k.a DCD, CD or RLSD)
9	DD		Receiver Signal Element Timing (B-) RX Clock
10	CF	-	Data Carrier Detect (B-) (a.k.a DCD, CD or RLSD)
11	DA	-	Ext. Transmit Clock (B-)
12	DB		Tramsmit Signal Element Timing (B-) TX CLOCK
13	CB		CTS (B-) Clear to Send
14	BA		Transmit Data (TD) (B-) (a.k.a TxD)
15	DB		Transmit Signal element Timing (A+) TX CLOCK
16	BB		Received Data (B-) (a.k.a RxD)
17	DD		Receiver Signal Element Timing (A+) RX CLOCK
18	LL	U	Local Loopback
19	CA/CJ		RTS (B-) Request to Send
20	CD	U	DTE Ready (a.k.a DTR)
21	RL	U	Remote Loopback
22			RI Ring Indicator
23	AC		Signal Ground
24	DA		Ext TX Clock (A+)
25	TM	U	Test Mode

NOTES:

• Leave any pins not specified above unconnected.
• In balanced mode signals with the same name are the paired set, for example, pins 2 and 14 are both named BA and form the Transmit Data pair. Each signal of the pair is either a high (A+) or low (B-)
• When used with RS-485 in half-duplex, multi-dropped environments a simple three signal arrangements is frequently used - one pin is used as a GND and RX/TX is alternately switched onto a balanced pair of wires which can be either the BA (TX) or BB (RX) pair.

View - looking into male connector

(DB25 male and female connector diagrams)

DB - Designations for D-subminiature Connectors

This lists the designations for DB connectors (supplied by Rob Recny - Thanks). Any errors in this list are ours not Rob's.

• A - 15-pin 2-row joystick connector.

• B - 25-pin 2-row serial or parallel connector - also 44-pin high-density 3-row.

• C - 37-pin connector - sometimes found on multi-port serial or data acquisition boards.

• D - 50-pin connector - a little longer than C, but three rows using the same pins as the 2-row connectors.

• E - 9-pin 2-row serial - also 3-row VGA.

So a DB9 is more properly a DE-9P. Isn't knowledge a wonderful thing!

T1/E1 Pinout (RJ-48C)

T1/E1 wiring may use either a RJ45, DB15 or BNC connectors. The pinout shown uses RJ45 connectors and is known as USOC RJ-48C. T1 is a North America (primarily) digital service providing 1.544 Mbps. E1 is a European/Rest of World standard providing digital service at 2.048 Mbps. CATegory 5(e) cabling is used to provide balanced pairs. The color coding for Cat 5(e) cabling may be 568A or 568B.

RJ45 Pin	Signal	Notes
1	RX1
2	RX2
3	FGND	Ground/Shield
4	TX1
5	TX2
6	FGND	Ground/Shield
7	NC	Unused
8	NC	Unused

NOTE: NC = Not connected.

most expensive cities

from : www.citymayors.com

18 June 2007: Moscow is the world's the world's most expensive city for the second consecutive year. London is in second position, climbing three places since 2006. Seoul moves down one place in the ranking to take third place, followed by Tokyo. Asuncion in Paraguay remains the least expensive city in a survey published annually by Mercer Human Resource Consulting. With New York as the base city scoring 100 points, Moscow scores 134.4, London 126.3 and Seoul 122.4.

THE MOST EXPENSIVE CITIES IN THE WORLD
ECA International survey (June 2008): Introduction | Table: World | Table: Europe | Table: Asia |
UBS survey (March 2008): Most expensive cities (Intro) | World's most expensive cities (table) | Richest cities by personal earnings (table) | Richest cities by purchasing power (table |
Mercer survey (2007): Most expensive cities
EIU survey (2007): Most expensive cities

RICHEST CITIES BY GDP
Introduction | 150 richest cities in 2005 | 150 richest cities in 2020 | Europe's richest cities |

Mercer's survey covers 143 cities across six continents and measures the comparative cost of over 200 items in each location, including housing, transport, food, clothing, household goods and entertainment. It is the world's most comprehensive cost-of-living survey and is used to help multinational companies and governments determine compensation allowances for their expatriate employees.

"There have been some significant changes in the rankings since last year. These are primarily due to exchange rate fluctuations - in particular, the weakening of the US Dollar and strengthening of the Euro," said Rebecca Powers, a principal and senior consultant at Mercer.

Europe, Middle East and Africa
Moscow is the most expensive city in Europe and in the rest of the world, for the second year running, with a score of 134.4 (compared with 123.9 in 2006). "The appreciation of the Rouble against the US Dollar, combined with ever-increasing accommodation charges, has driven up costs for expatriates in Moscow," said Yvonne Traber, research manager and senior associate at Mercer.

London has climbed three positions to second place in the ranking (score 126.3). "Steep property rental costs, together with the strengthening of the British Pound compared to the US Dollar, have contributed to the city's high ranking," commented Ms Yvonne Traber.

Other costly European cities include Copenhagen in 6th place (110.2), Geneva in 7th (109.8) and Zurich in 9th (107.6). Oslo remains in 10th place with a score of 105.8 while Milan climbs two places to position 11 (104.4). Sofia in Bulgaria is Europe's least expensive city in 108th place with a score of 72.5.

The strengthening of the Euro has resulted in a number of European cities moving significantly up the ranking this year. For example, Stockholm has moved up from 36th position to reach 23rd place (score 93.1) while Amsterdam has climbed from 41st position to 25th (92.2). Cities in Spain, Greece, Germany and the UK also rank notably higher this year.

Ms Yvonne Traber commented: "The relative strength of the Euro and other European currencies, including the Swiss Franc and the Swedish, Danish and Norwegian Krone, has pushed up the living costs faced by expatriates in many European countries."

Tel Aviv is the costliest city in the Middle East. The Israeli city ranks in 17th place and scores 97.7. Dubai and Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates have moved down in the ranking this year. The main reason for this drop is that the UAE Dirham is pegged to the US Dollar. The majority of African cities covered by the survey come in the bottom half of the ranking.

The Americas
New York remains the most expensive city in North America but drops five places to position 15 (score 100). Other North American cities have dropped more steeply and only New York and Los Angeles (position 42, score 87.1) rank in the top 50 cities.

"The decline of most US cities in the ranking can be attributed to the depreciation of the US dollar against the Euro and other major currencies worldwide. The change reflects a reversal of the situation experienced this time last year, when the majority of US cities climbed the ranking due to the strength of the dollar," said Ms Powers.

Toronto, the most expensive city in Canada, has dropped 35 places to position 82 (score 78.8). Calgary and Vancouver have also tumbled down the rankings, sliding from 71st place to 92nd and 56th to 89th respectively. Ottawa remains the cheapest Canadian city in 109th position scoring 72.3. Canadian cities have traditionally rated favourably in the worldwide ranking. The new scores reflect a low rate of inflation and stable housing prices. In addition, while it has appreciated slightly against the US Dollar, the Canadian Dollar has depreciated nearly 13% against the Euro since last year's survey.

Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro have dropped significantly in the ranking, but remain the most expensive cities in Latin America. Sao Paulo is now placed 62nd, compared with 34th in 2006, and is followed by Rio de Janeiro in 64th place (position 40 in 2006). Although the Brazilian Real has remained stable against the US Dollar over the last 12 months, the Brazilian cities surveyed have been pushed down the ranking as they give way to European cities that are ascending due to the buoyancy of the Euro.

Globally, the least costly city is Asuncion in Paraguay for the fifth consecutive year (score 50). Other low-ranking cities include Karachi, Quito and Montevideo in 142nd (score 56.1), 141st (56.3) and 140th place (58.4) respectively.

Asia
Four of the world's top 10 costliest cities for expatriates are in Asia. Seoul ranks in 3rd place (score 122.4), Tokyo in 4th (122.1) and Hong Kong in 5th (119.4) – all have been pushed down one place this year.

Chinese cities have moved down the ranking this year. Beijing ranks 20th and scores 95.9, while Shanghai is in 26th place with a score of 92.1. Over the past 12 months, the value of the Chinese Yuan has decreased by around 6% against the Euro. This factor, together with a low inflation rate and stable property rental prices, has kept the major Chinese cities from moving up the ranking. Accommodation costs have not escalated because, while demand is increasing, the availability of high-quality rentals in these cities is also good.

In contrast, elsewhere in Asia, the cost of international-standard accommodation has pushed some cities up the ranking. For example, sharp increases in house prices have contributed to Singapore climbing from 17th to 14th position. Rising property prices have also caused Indian cities to move up the ranking – for example, Mumbai has jumped from position 68 to 52 (score 84.9).

Australasia
Wellington is the least costly city in this region in 111th place with a score of 71.8. Auckland climbs one place to rank 99th (score 73.9). Expatriates in Australia continue to face higher living costs than their counterparts in New Zealand. Sydney remains the most expensive city in Australia at position 21 with a score of 94.9. Melbourne occupies position 60, up 14 places from last year, and scores 82.5. Adelaide is in 96th place (score 74.7).

The world's 50 most expensive big cities
(The index is based on cost of living expressed in US dollars. Therefore, if the dollar weakens against the local currency of a city, the city becomes more expensive and moves up the index, even if prices expressed in local currency remain the same or even go down.)

Rank (2007)	Rank (2006)	City	Country
1	1	Moscow	Russia
2	5	London	United Kingdom
3	2	Seoul	South Korea
4	3	Tokyo	Japan
5	4	Hong Kong	China
6	8	Copenhagen	Denmark
7	7	Geneva	Switzerland
8	6	Osaka	Japan
9	9	Zurich	Switzerland
10	10	Oslo	Norway
11	13	Milan	Italy
12	12	St Petersburg	Russia
13	15	Paris	France
14	17	Singapore	Singapore
15	10	New York City	USA
16	18	Dublin	Ireland
17	24	Tel Aviv	Israel
18	21	Rome	Italy
19	21	Vienna	Austria
20	14	Beijing	China
21	19	Sydney	Australia
22	25	Helsinki	Finland
23	36	Stockholm	Sweden
24	27	Douala	Cameroon
25	41	Amsterdam	Netherlands
=26	53	Madrid	Spain
=26	20	Shanghai	China
28	21	Kiev	Ukraine
29	59	Athens	Greece
30	52	Almaty	Kazakhstan
=31	56	Barcelona	Spain
=31	48	Bratislava	Slovak Republic
33	45	Dakar	Senegal
34	25	Dubai	United Arab Emirates
35	45	Abidjan	Côte d'Ivorie
36	60	Glasgow	UK
37	31	Lagos	Nigeria
38	15	istanbul	Turkey
39	65	Munich	Germany
40	61	Frankfurt	Germany
41	69	Birmingham	UK
42	29	Los Angeles	USA
43	46	Luxembourg	Luxembourg
44	70	Brussels	Belgium
=45	30	Abu Dhabi	United Arab Emirates
=45	72	Berlin	Germany
=45	62	Düsseldorf	Germany
48	-	Taipei	Taiwan
49	50	Prague	Czech Republic
50	51	Algiers	Algeria

Notes:
The figures for Mercer's cost of living comparisons are based on a survey conducted in March 2007. The 2007 comparisons are based on a similar survey conducted in March 2006. The information is used by governments and major companies to protect the purchasing power of their employees when transferred abroad. The choice of cities surveyed is based on the demand for corresponding data from companies and governmental organizations. Exchange rates used in attached table of cost comparisons: 1 GBP = 1.944390 USD; 1 GBP = 1.476181 EUR. Harare are been excluded from this year's rankings because the severe economic crisis in Zimbabwe has rendered costs there incomparable.